International Journal of Education and Cognitive Sciences

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Parenting Education Based on the Strong Families and Positive Parenting Approaches on Loneliness Among 10- to 12-Year-Old Adolescents in Kerman

Maryam Salehyan iD , Mitra Kamyabi ^* iD , Najmeh Hajipour Abaie iD , Alireza Manzari Tavakoli iD

Purpose: The present study aimed to compare the effectiveness of parenting education based on the Strong Families and Positive Parenting approaches in reducing loneliness among 10- to 12-year-old adolescents in Kerman.

Methods and Materials: This applied quasi-experimental study employed a pretest–posttest design with two experimental groups and two corresponding control groups. The study population consisted of mothers of 10- to 12-year-old adolescents and their children in Kerman during the 2025–2026 academic year. A total of 96 mother–adolescent dyads were selected through convenience sampling and allocated to four groups of 24 dyads each: Strong Families experimental, Strong Families control, Positive Parenting experimental, and Positive Parenting control. The Strong Families intervention was delivered in seven weekly 60-minute sessions involving mothers, adolescents, and joint mother–adolescent activities, whereas the Positive Parenting intervention comprised seven weekly 60-minute sessions delivered only to mothers. Loneliness was assessed using the 20-item UCLA Loneliness Scale. Data were analyzed in SPSS version 26 using analysis of covariance and Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons, with pretest loneliness scores entered as the covariate.

Findings: After controlling for pretest loneliness, the effect of study group on posttest loneliness was statistically significant, F(3, 91) = 45.08, p < .001, partial η² = .598. Bonferroni comparisons showed that both the Strong Families intervention and Positive Parenting intervention significantly reduced adolescent loneliness compared with their corresponding control groups (p < .001). Furthermore, the Strong Families experimental group had significantly lower adjusted posttest loneliness scores than the Positive Parenting experimental group, with an adjusted mean difference of -3.84, p = .002. No significant difference was found between the two control groups, p = .917.

Conclusion: Both parenting education approaches were effective in reducing loneliness among early adolescents; however, the Strong Families approach demonstrated greater effectiveness, suggesting that family-centered interventions involving direct parent–adolescent participation may provide stronger benefits for reducing adolescent loneliness.

Development, Validation, and Evaluation of a Psychological Hardiness Training Package for Older Adults Residing in Nursing Homes

Maryam Hojjati iD , Reza Soltani Shal ^* iD , Sajjad Rezaei iD

Purpose: The present study aimed to develop, validate, and evaluate the effectiveness of a psychological hardiness–based training package on life satisfaction and psychological well-being among older adults residing in nursing homes.

Methods and Materials: In this sequential exploratory mixed-methods study, the training package was initially developed based on in-depth interviews with 17 participants, including older adults and specialists, and its content validity was subsequently confirmed by 10 experts. In the quasi-experimental phase, using a pretest–posttest design with a control group, 30 older adults residing in nursing homes in Rasht were matched and then randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 15) and a control group (n = 15). The experimental group received twelve 70-minute intervention sessions over 6 weeks. The instruments included the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) and the short form of Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well-Being (RSPWB). Data were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA).

Findings: The qualitative analysis resulted in the identification of 10 key components and the development of a 12-session training package. The quantitative findings indicated that the intervention significantly increased life satisfaction (p < .001) and the total psychological well-being score (p < .001) in the experimental group. At the component level, self-acceptance, positive relations with others, purpose in life, and autonomy improved significantly (p < .001), whereas changes in environmental mastery and personal growth were not statistically significant.

Conclusion: The developed training package, grounded in a culturally contextualized structure and demonstrating high validity, represents an effective and empowering intervention for improving dynamic dimensions of psychological well-being and life satisfaction among older adults. Its integration into supportive programs provided by nursing homes is therefore recommended.

Structural Modeling of Patient Safety Culture Based on the Professional Nursing Practice Environment: The Mediating Role of Missed Nursing Care Among Inpatient Nurses

Mohammad Tajik ^* iD

Purpose: This study aimed to examine a structural model of patient safety culture based on the professional nursing practice environment, with missed nursing care as a mediating variable among nurses working in inpatient hospital wards.

Methods and Materials: This cross-sectional analytical study was conducted in 2026 among 392 registered nurses working in inpatient wards of Imam Khomeini Hospital Complex, Tehran, Iran. Participants were selected using proportionate stratified random sampling. Data were collected using the Hospital Survey on Patient Safety Culture, the Practice Environment Scale of the Nursing Work Index, the Persian MISSCARE Survey, and a demographic-professional characteristics form. The proposed measurement and structural models were tested using covariance-based structural equation modeling. Model fit was evaluated using χ²/df, CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR. The indirect effect was examined using bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples.

Findings: The professional nursing practice environment was significantly and negatively associated with missed nursing care (β = −.47, p < .001) and positively associated with patient safety culture (β = .41, p < .001). Missed nursing care was negatively associated with patient safety culture (β = −.34, p < .001). The indirect association between the professional nursing practice environment and patient safety culture through missed nursing care was statistically significant (β = .16, 95% bootstrap CI [.11, .22], p < .001), indicating partial mediation. The structural model demonstrated acceptable fit (χ²/df = 2.22, CFI = .948, TLI = .941, RMSEA = .056, SRMR = .049) and explained 46% of the variance in patient safety culture.

Conclusion: A more favorable professional nursing practice environment was associated with stronger patient safety culture both directly and indirectly through lower levels of missed nursing care. Improving staffing and resource adequacy, nursing leadership, interdisciplinary collaboration, and nurses’ participation in organizational decision-making may reduce missed nursing care and strengthen patient safety culture. Longitudinal and multicenter studies are recommended to further examine the temporal and causal relationships among these variables.

A Qualitative Study of the Role of Social Support in Reducing Caregiver Burden among Families of Orthopedic Patients

Amir Aminian iD , Mohamadreza Shakeri iD , Shahla Shokatpour Lotfi ^* iD

Purpose: This study aimed to explore the lived experiences of family caregivers of orthopedic patients and to clarify the role of social support in reducing their perceived caregiving burden.

Methods and Materials: This qualitative study was conducted using a descriptive phenomenological approach. Participants were family caregivers of orthopedic patients hospitalized at the Bone and Joint Reconstruction Research Center, Shafa Yahyaian Hospital, affiliated with Iran University of Medical Sciences. Participants were selected through purposive sampling with maximum variation in age, caregiving role, occupational status, and type of orthopedic condition. Five information-rich interviews were included in the final analysis. Data were collected through individual semi-structured in-depth interviews and transcribed verbatim. Data analysis was performed using Colaizzi’s seven-step phenomenological method, including repeated reading of transcripts, extraction of significant statements, formulation of meanings, clustering of themes, development of a comprehensive description, identification of the fundamental structure of the phenomenon, and participant validation. Trustworthiness was ensured using Lincoln and Guba’s criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

Findings: Analysis resulted in 23 subthemes organized into six main themes: physical and functional burden of caregiving; emotional and psychological vulnerability; financial pressure and disruption of everyday roles; family support and sharing of caregiving responsibility; informational, instrumental, and healthcare-related support; and social connectedness, caregiver recognition, and restorative support. The findings indicated that caregiver burden intensified when physical demands, uncertainty, financial difficulties, family conflict, and social isolation occurred simultaneously. In contrast, emotional reassurance, shared caregiving responsibilities, practical assistance, professional guidance, financial support, companionship, and opportunities for respite reduced the perceived burden and strengthened caregivers’ capacity to continue providing care.

Conclusion: Social support plays a multidimensional protective role in reducing caregiver burden among families of orthopedic patients by decreasing physical workload, emotional distress, uncertainty, isolation, and economic pressure; therefore, caregiver-centered support should be integrated into orthopedic care and discharge planning.

From Prelinguistic Interaction to Language-Mediated Mentalization: A Narrative Review

Sara Entezari iD , Roshanak Khodabakhsh Pirkalani ^* iD

Purpose: This narrative review examined how prelinguistic interactions contribute to the foundations of mentalization and how language subsequently extends this capacity.

Methods and Materials: Theoretical and empirical literature published between 2018 and 2026 was identified through Scopus and Google Scholar using keywords related to mentalization, joint attention, prelinguistic interactions, caregiver sensitivity, and language. Relevant seminal theoretical sources were also included, and the selected literature was narratively synthesized.

Findings: Prelinguistic communication, particularly joint attention, gesture, vocalization, and affective coordination, provides an interpersonal foundation for understanding others’ behavior as meaningful and intentional. Caregiver responsiveness may further support the regulation and organization of internal experience. Language expands these foundations by providing representational structures for distinguishing mental content from external reality and for comparing perspectives. Linguistic diversity may increase sensitivity to differences in others’ communicative perspectives, although second-language processing may also increase unnecessary mental-state attribution.

Conclusion: Mentalization development may be better understood as a progressive expansion and reorganization of ways of engaging with mental states rather than a linear shift from nonverbal to verbal social cognition. Embodied-interpersonal, linguistic, and sociocultural processes appear to make interconnected contributions to this development.

Comparative Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Schema Therapy in Reducing Repetitive Negative Thoughts in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder

Giti Shahbazi iD , Faramarz Sohrabi ^* iD , Ghobad Bahamin iD

Purpose: This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and schema therapy in reducing repetitive negative thinking among patients with major depressive disorder (MDD).

Methods and Materials: This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest–posttest design with a control group. The statistical population comprised patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder who attended counseling and psychotherapy centers in Ilam, Iran, in 2026. Using convenience sampling, 45 eligible patients were selected and randomly assigned to three groups of 15 participants: a CBT group, a schema therapy group, and a control group. Data were collected using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire developed by Hollon and Kendall. The CBT group received Beck’s cognitive behavioral intervention, while the schema therapy group received Young’s schema therapy intervention. Both interventions consisted of 12 sessions of 60 minutes each, whereas the control group received no therapeutic intervention during the study period. Following completion of the interventions, all three groups completed the posttest assessments. Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), with pretest scores controlled to examine between-group differences in posttest outcomes.

Findings: Inferential analysis indicated a significant difference among the three groups in posttest repetitive negative thinking after controlling for baseline scores. Both cognitive behavioral therapy and schema therapy produced significant reductions in repetitive negative thinking compared with the control condition. Pairwise comparisons further indicated that participants receiving schema therapy demonstrated a greater reduction in repetitive negative thinking than those receiving cognitive behavioral therapy. Thus, although both therapeutic approaches were effective in modifying maladaptive repetitive cognitive processes associated with major depressive disorder, the magnitude of improvement was greater in the schema therapy group.

Conclusion: Both cognitive behavioral therapy and schema therapy can be considered effective psychological interventions for reducing repetitive negative thinking in patients with major depressive disorder; however, schema therapy may provide greater benefits in addressing persistent maladaptive cognitive patterns. These findings support the clinical application of both approaches in counseling and psychotherapy settings and highlight the potential value of investigating integrative interventions combining CBT and schema therapy in future research.

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment-Based Parenting Training and Choice Theory-Based Parenting Training on Parent–Child Relationship Quality in Parents of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Sara Tavazoei iD , Mahmoud Goodarzi ^* iD , Hamzeh Ahmadian iD

Purpose: This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of acceptance and commitment-based parenting training and choice theory-based parenting training in improving parent–child relationship quality among parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This applied quasi-experimental study used a pretest–posttest control-group design with a two-month follow-up. The statistical population comprised parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder who attended counseling and psychological service centers in Sanandaj, Iran, between August and December 2025. Using purposive sampling, 45 eligible parents were selected and randomly assigned to acceptance and commitment-based parenting, choice theory-based parenting, and control groups, with 15 participants in each group. Each experimental group received ten weekly 90-minute group sessions, whereas the control group received no intervention. Data were collected using the Conners’ Parent Rating Scale and Pianta’s Parent–Child Relationship Scale. Repeated-measures analysis of variance and Bonferroni post hoc tests were conducted in SPSS version 28. Repeated-measures analysis showed significant effects of time on conflict, closeness, dependency, and overall parent–child relationship quality (p < .001). The time-by-group interaction was significant only for closeness (p = .049) and was nonsignificant for conflict, dependency, and overall relationship quality. Bonferroni comparisons demonstrated that acceptance and commitment-based parenting produced significantly greater improvements than choice theory-based parenting in closeness (mean difference = 5.00, p = .031) and overall parent–child relationship quality (mean difference = 8.79, p = .046). No significant differences were found between the two interventions in conflict or dependency. Within-group comparisons indicated that both interventions significantly improved most outcomes from pretest to posttest and follow-up. Both parenting interventions effectively improved parent–child relationship quality among parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; however, acceptance and commitment-based parenting was more effective in strengthening emotional closeness and overall relationship quality, suggesting its greater value when deeper relational and emotional improvement is the primary therapeutic objective.

A Structural Model for Predicting Psychological Vulnerability Based on Childhood Trauma and Perceived Social Support: The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation in Women

Samaneh Afsharkohan iD , Kobra Haji Alizadeh ^* iD , Azita Amirfakhraei iD

Purpose: This study aimed to develop and test a structural model of psychological vulnerability based on childhood trauma and perceived social support, with the mediating role of cognitive emotion regulation in women.

Methods and Materials: This cross-sectional, descriptive-correlational study used structural equation modeling. The participants were 350 married women aged 18–50 years attending licensed counseling and psychology centers in Mashhad, Iran, in 2025. Participants were recruited through two-stage sampling. Data were collected using the 25-item Symptom Checklist, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire–Short Form, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire–Short Form. Data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modeling, and bootstrap analysis with 5,000 resamples.

Findings: Childhood trauma was positively associated with psychological vulnerability (β = .459, p < .001) and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation (β = .624, p < .001), and negatively associated with adaptive regulation (β = −.441, p < .001). Perceived social support was negatively associated with psychological vulnerability (β = −.642, p < .001) and maladaptive regulation (β = −.261, p < .001), and positively associated with adaptive regulation (β = .484, p < .001). Adaptive regulation was negatively associated with psychological vulnerability (β = −.417, p < .001), whereas maladaptive regulation showed a positive association (β = .620, p < .001). Significant indirect effects were found for childhood trauma through adaptive regulation (β = .18, 95% CI [.07, .28]) and maladaptive regulation (β = .24, 95% CI [.11, .36]), and for perceived social support through adaptive (β = −.20, 95% CI [−.32, −.09]) and maladaptive regulation (β = −.12, 95% CI [−.23, −.02]).

Conclusion: Cognitive emotion regulation partially mediated the associations of childhood trauma and perceived social support with psychological vulnerability. Strengthening adaptive emotion regulation and social support may help reduce psychological vulnerability in women.

International Journal of Education and Cognitive Sciences

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