International Journal of Education and Cognitive Sciences

Purpose: This study aimed to compare cognitive emotion regulation, hope, psychological flexibility, and quality of life between male working adolescents and non-working male adolescents.

Methods and Materials: In terms of its objective, this was an applied study, and in terms of the data-collection method, it employed a descriptive causal-comparative design. The statistical population consisted of all male working adolescents aged 12–18 years residing in Khorramabad, Iran, during 2023–2024 (N = 160), whose names and records were registered with the Welfare Organization of the city. G*Power software was used to determine the sample size required for two independent groups and the comparison of four variables. The results indicated that a sample of 30 participants was appropriate for this study. The participants were selected through simple random sampling. Four questionnaires were used to collect the data: Gross’s Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Snyder’s Hope Scale, the Psychological Flexibility Questionnaire developed by Bond et al., and the Quality of Life Questionnaire developed by Varni et al. Using SPSS version 23, multivariate analysis of variance was employed to examine differences between the groups, and independent-samples t tests were used to compare each of the study variables separately between the two groups.

Findings: The statistical analyses revealed significant differences between male working adolescents and non-working male adolescents in terms of quality of life, psychological flexibility, hope, and cognitive emotion regulation (p < .001).

Conclusion: Considering the findings and the significant differences between male working adolescents and non-working male adolescents in quality of life, psychological flexibility, hope, and cognitive emotion regulation, researchers in psychology, counseling, social work, and educational sciences are advised to design and conduct intervention-oriented studies in various institutions and organizations, including schools, municipalities, and welfare organizations, to improve the quality of life of working children and adolescents.

Purpose: The present study aimed to develop a comprehensive conceptual framework for nature-based art therapy grounded in neurological mechanisms to enhance emotional, sensory, cognitive, and social functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder.

Methods and Materials: This study was designed as a theoretical–applied research using a descriptive–analytical approach. Data were collected through a systematic review of Persian and international scientific literature in the domains of art therapy, autism spectrum disorder, nature-based interventions, and neuroscience. Relevant sources were identified using databases including SID, MagIran, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and Scopus. Inclusion criteria consisted of direct relevance to the study topic, scientific credibility, peer-reviewed status, and conceptual or empirical contribution. After screening and selection, the data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Key themes were extracted and categorized into three primary domains: art therapy processes, nature as an enriched therapeutic environment, and neurological mechanisms underlying intervention effects. Finally, conceptual inference was employed to integrate these domains into a coherent framework.

Findings: The analysis revealed that nature-based art therapy operates through a dynamic interaction between expressive artistic processes, enriched natural environments, and neurobiological mechanisms. The findings suggest that engagement in structured art activities within natural settings facilitates sensory–motor integration, emotional regulation, and attention restoration, which are mediated by processes such as neuroplasticity, modulation of limbic activity, and enhancement of executive functioning. The integration of these components is inferred to produce synergistic effects, leading to improvements in adaptive behavior, cognitive flexibility, emotional stability, and social interaction in children with autism spectrum disorder.

Conclusion: By emphasizing the interplay between experiential, environmental, and neurological factors, the model highlights the potential of nature-based art therapy as a holistic and developmentally responsive strategy for enhancing functional outcomes in affected children.

Purpose: This study aimed to develop and validate a therapeutic protocol based on fundamental traps for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder.

Methods and Materials: This qualitative study was conducted using thematic analysis. The study population comprised specialists in clinical psychology, schema therapy, cognitive psychotherapy, health psychology, and psychometrics. Sixteen experts were selected through purposive sampling and participated in semi-structured interviews. The interview data were analyzed according to Braun and Clarke’s six-phase thematic analysis approach. Based on the extracted themes and the relevant theoretical foundations, a ten-session therapeutic protocol centered on fundamental traps was developed. The content validity of the protocol was subsequently assessed by a panel of experts using the Content Validity Ratio and Content Validity Index. The relevance and simplicity of the protocol components were also evaluated.

Findings: Thematic analysis identified five overarching themes: multidimensional conceptualization of generalized anxiety disorder, developmental and predisposing factors, the role of fundamental traps and maladaptive modes in the persistence of anxiety, effective therapeutic strategies, and requirements for designing and implementing the therapeutic protocol. These findings informed the development of a structured ten-session intervention. The validation results indicated that the Content Validity Ratio of all sessions exceeded the critical threshold, with an overall mean CVR of 0.84. Moreover, the mean Content Validity Index values for relevance and simplicity were 0.97 and 0.93, respectively, demonstrating satisfactory agreement among experts regarding the appropriateness, clarity, and applicability of the protocol.

Conclusion: Fundamental traps appear to provide a theoretically coherent and clinically relevant framework for conceptualizing the underlying cognitive and emotional vulnerabilities associated with generalized anxiety disorder. The developed protocol demonstrated satisfactory content validity and may serve as a preliminary framework for clinical interventions targeting deeply rooted maladaptive patterns in affected individuals. Nevertheless, its therapeutic efficacy should be examined in future experimental and randomized controlled studies.

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Persian short form of the Self-Criticism/Self-Reassurance Scale among university students.

Methods and Materials: The present study was a descriptive psychometric validation study. The statistical population consisted of university students in Tehran during the 2025–2026 academic year. A total of 573 students were selected using convenience sampling. The research instruments included the Short Form of the Self-Criticism/Self-Reassurance Scale (FSCRS-SF), the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21), the Self-Compassion Scale–Short Form (SCS-SF), and the Self-Critical Rumination Scale (SCRS). Content validity, confirmatory factor analysis, convergent and divergent validity, and internal consistency reliability were examined.

Findings: The content validity results indicated that three items were removed due to low content validity ratio, and the final 11-item version was retained for subsequent analyses. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a two-factor structure consisting of self-criticism and self-reassurance, and the model fit indices indicated acceptable to favorable fit. Correlational analyses showed that self-criticism had positive and significant associations with depression, anxiety, stress, and self-critical rumination, while it had negative and significant associations with self-compassion and self-reassurance. In contrast, self-reassurance was negatively and significantly associated with negative emotional symptoms and self-critical rumination, and positively and significantly associated with self-compassion. Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega coefficients for the self-criticism and self-reassurance subscales indicated satisfactory internal consistency.

Conclusion: The findings support the validity and reliability of the Persian 11-item short form of the Self-Criticism/Self-Reassurance Scale among university students. This instrument can be used as a brief, valid, and practical measure in preliminary psychological research and screening contexts.

Purpose: This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and healthy lifestyle education in improving mental health among women with premature menopause.

Methods and Materials: This quasi-experimental study used a pretest–posttest design with two experimental groups and one control group. The statistical population consisted of women with premature menopause in Tehran in 2026. A total of 45 eligible participants were selected through purposive sampling and randomly assigned to three groups: Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, healthy lifestyle education, and control, with 15 participants in each group. The Acceptance and Commitment Therapy group received ten 90-minute group sessions based on the protocol of Izadi and Abedi, while the healthy lifestyle education group received eight 90-minute group sessions based on the protocol of Mehravar et al. The control group received no intervention during the study period. Mental health was assessed using the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised, and the general psychological distress index was used as the main outcome variable. Data were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance and Bonferroni post hoc comparisons.

Findings: After controlling for pretest scores, the results of univariate analysis of covariance showed a significant difference among the three groups in posttest scores of the general psychological distress index, F(2, 41) = 39.55, p < .001, η² = .651. Bonferroni pairwise comparisons indicated that both Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and healthy lifestyle education significantly reduced psychological distress compared with the control group, p < .001. Moreover, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy produced a significantly greater reduction in psychological distress than healthy lifestyle education, p < .001.

Conclusion: The findings indicate that both interventions were effective in improving mental health among women with premature menopause; however, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy demonstrated superior effectiveness. Therefore, this approach may be considered a more appropriate psychological intervention for reducing mental health problems and psychological distress in women experiencing premature menopause.

Purpose: The present study aimed to compare attentional bias, interpretation bias, metacognitive beliefs, and self-compassion between patients diagnosed with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) and normal individuals.

Methods and Materials: This study employed a causal-comparative research design. The statistical population consisted of patients with Generalized Anxiety Disorder attending psychiatric clinics and counseling centers in Tehran and normal individuals from the general population. A total of 160 participants were selected, including 80 patients diagnosed with GAD and 80 healthy individuals. Participants completed the Dot-Probe Task for attentional bias assessment, the Ambiguous Scenarios Test for interpretation bias, the Metacognitions Questionnaire-30 (MCQ-30), and the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) in SPSS version 27.

Findings: The results of the multivariate analysis revealed a significant overall difference between patients with GAD and normal individuals on the combined dependent variables, Wilks’ Λ = .381, F(4,155) = 63.52, p < .001, partial η² = .619. Follow-up univariate analyses demonstrated that patients with GAD reported significantly higher levels of attentional bias, F(1,158) = 145.73, p < .001, partial η² = .480; interpretation bias, F(1,158) = 174.82, p < .001, partial η² = .525; and dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs, F(1,158) = 160.95, p < .001, partial η² = .505, compared with normal individuals. In contrast, normal individuals exhibited significantly higher levels of self-compassion than patients with GAD, F(1,158) = 228.37, p < .001, partial η² = .591. Among the investigated variables, self-compassion showed the largest effect size, indicating the strongest differentiation between the two groups.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that Generalized Anxiety Disorder is associated with elevated cognitive and metacognitive vulnerabilities, including attentional and interpretation biases and dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs, as well as reduced self-compassion.

Purpose: The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of the Bigdeli mind simulation technique on psychological status, addiction tendency, substance craving, craving-related thoughts, and functional brain activation patterns in individuals with substance dependence.

Methods and Materials: This study employed a quasi-experimental one-group pretest–posttest design. The statistical population consisted of male individuals aged 30 to 55 years referred to addiction treatment clinics in Karaj who were receiving methadone maintenance therapy at a dosage of 40 mg. Fifteen participants were selected through purposive sampling. Data collection instruments included the Attitude Toward Addiction Questionnaire, Addiction Tendency Questionnaire, Substance Craving Questionnaire, Craving Beliefs Questionnaire (CBQ), Addiction Severity Index, and Post-Cessation Craving Questionnaire. The intervention consisted of eight structured 60-minute sessions based on the Bigdeli mind simulation technique. Psychological assessments and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (Rest-fMRI) were conducted before and after the intervention. fMRI analyses focused on reward-system regions and cognitive control regions, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), nucleus accumbens, and basal ganglia. Behavioral data were analyzed using SPSS software through Wilcoxon and paired t-tests, while neuroimaging data were processed using CONN Toolbox Version 22a under MATLAB-2020b.

Findings: The findings demonstrated significant reductions in all examined psychological variables following the intervention. Attitude toward addiction decreased significantly (p = 0.002), addiction tendency showed a significant reduction (p = 0.004), substance craving decreased significantly (p = 0.013), and craving-related thoughts were also significantly reduced (p = 0.001). Resting-state fMRI analyses revealed increased functional connectivity in executive control regions, particularly the dlPFC and ACC, alongside reduced connectivity within reward-related and impulsivity-related pathways involving the orbitofrontal cortex and basal ganglia. These neural changes were associated with improvements in cognitive control, emotional regulation, and reduced craving-related processing.

Conclusion: The results indicate that the Bigdeli mind simulation technique may serve as an effective psychological intervention for reducing addiction-related cognitive and emotional processes while simultaneously modifying neural connectivity patterns associated with reward processing and executive control. The intervention appears capable of enhancing self-regulation and reducing vulnerability to substance craving among individuals with substance dependence.

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the role of test anxiety and working memory in predicting mathematics performance among female high school students.

Methods and Materials: This applied study employed a descriptive-correlational research design. The statistical population consisted of female students enrolled in the second cycle of secondary education in Kermanshah, Iran. A total of 300 students were selected through a multistage cluster sampling method. Data were collected using the Test Anxiety Inventory developed by Spielberger (1980), the Wechsler Working Memory assessment, and a researcher-developed Mathematics Performance Test comprising 15 items derived from the mathematics curriculum of the tenth and eleventh grades. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation coefficients, and simultaneous multiple regression analysis in SPSS version 27.

Findings: The results revealed a significant negative relationship between test anxiety and working memory (r = −0.551, p < .001). Test anxiety was also negatively and significantly associated with mathematics performance (r = −0.535, p < .001), whereas working memory demonstrated a significant positive relationship with mathematics performance (r = 0.489, p < .001). Simultaneous multiple regression analysis indicated that test anxiety and working memory jointly predicted mathematics performance significantly. The multiple correlation coefficient was R = 0.780, and the coefficient of determination was R² = 0.609, indicating that the two predictors explained 60.9% of the variance in mathematics performance. The regression model was statistically significant (p < .001). Standardized regression coefficients showed that test anxiety (β = −0.544, p < .001) negatively predicted mathematics performance, while working memory (β = 0.365, p < .001) positively predicted mathematics performance. Furthermore, test anxiety contributed more strongly to the prediction of mathematics performance than working memory.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that mathematics performance is influenced not only by cognitive abilities such as working memory but also by emotional factors, particularly test anxiety. Reducing test anxiety and strengthening working memory may therefore serve as important targets for educational and counseling interventions aimed at enhancing students’ academic achievement in mathematics.